Like many philosophers, Confucius regards knowledge as intrinsically valuable (7.2)– knowledge, he says, is its own reward (15.32). But the activity of learning, and its object, must be understood in holistic terms, rather than in the narrow sense associated with modern Western epistemology. There seems to be at least four significant, interrelated ways in which Confucian learning departs from traditional assumptions in Western epistemology:
1. The lesson is more important than the content.
2. Learning is a means of cultivating the individual.
3. The ideal learner possesses both a sensitivity that is both generalist and practical.
4. Learning is a process of growth and coming to manifest virtue in oneself.
For Confucius, knowledge is intimately related to action as well as to ethics. In what follows, I will elaborate on the four preceding claims, thereby sketching an overview of Confucius’ views on learning and virtue in the Analects. I will show how learning and virtue relate to each other as well as their implications for the individual and for the community.
Learning: inside the mind
The starting point for many Confucian disciples is the canon (17.9). The classics stand to offer guidance in difficult situations as well as in ordinary life (11.25, 16.9). Of course, what this guidance consists in is not the knowledge of «epistemic tender» that is unreflectively accumulated and regurgitated (15.3, 17.8). «Learning», as opposed to «studying», bears a less scholastic and more dynamic connotation.
csableyeThe Confucian lessons are therefore not amenable to summarisation. This might be because the exegetical struggles of the learner seem to constitute an important part of what is to be learned. In contrast to the model of learning where exegetical efforts are merely a necessary step towards decrypting the actual meaning of a text (which already exists somewhere, separate from the student), it seems that in Confucius the process of learning is just as much a deconstructive process (1.8) as it is a constructive process. The deferential, perplexed, but resolutely engaged state that Yan Hui describes (9.11) might exemplify the attitude that Confucius intends to foster in his disciples.
Although his master’s doctrines stand as a nearly insurmountable obstacle to him, Yan Hui nonetheless finds himself compelled to continue despite having exhausted himself. Confucius himself reports this relentlessness (15.31), which dovetails with his characterisation of genuine learning as a pursuit without end (7.2, 8.17, 19.5).
Learning for Confucius thus appears to be a process of perpetual growth, much like Eudaemonia to Aristotle. Learning is therefore a project that touches every area of one’s life (17.8). That is to say, learning is, crucially, a means of cultivating the individual. The «end» of learning, if there is such a thing, is to realise the individual as not learned but a learner: the end of learning is the love of learning (17.8). Confucius condemns those who pursue learning as a means of gaining social status (14.24) or whose learning is otherwise driven by ulterior motives (14.44, 15.1). Confucius repeatedly remarks upon the scarcity and value of those who truly love to learn (5.28, 6.3, 11.7). The Confucian ideal is an individual who is not merely born gifted with knowledge (16.9), but furthermore (and more importantly) has an appetite for further knowledge (7.2, 15.31, 15.32).
Beyond the mind
The project of learning requires solemn dedication (1.8, 9.19); anything short of the utmost diligence would be a waste of time (2.15, 7.8). This said, the learner is not confined to the library or to the study. An authentic love for learning compels one to diverse areas of study and skill: for the learner, archery and charioteering are just as important as the Book of Poetry (9.2). The Confucian learner is not merely a learner but also a doer who understands well the extrinsic value of knowledge (13.5). Indeed, the exemplary learner takes joy in not only persevering in learning, but also in applying what they learn (1.1). This joy might well derive from the ethical advantage following from individual proficiency. Viz., because ought implies can, it becomes incumbent upon us to become capable individuals [so as to be more effective ethical agents]. Hence, it seems natural that Confucius finds the application of knowledge to be closely related to virtuous action (7.3).
At the same time, the process of learning is also a process of becoming virtuous (8.12, 19.6). Quite literally, through learning, one becomes good (6.27, 12.15). Virtue becomes second nature: the virtuous person comes to desire all and only that which is virtuous (2.4). The committed learner invariably (8.12) manifests the virtues of propriety (9.11, 16.13) and prudence, and in so doing develops a keen sense of shame (8.13) that affords social and situational acuity (2.18). In this regard, Confucius suggests that we ought to curate our company so as to surround ourselves with others from whom we might stand to learn (1.8, 1.14). Much as with Aristotle, habituation is indispensable to learning and to growth. The committed learner comes to recognise the virtues in others from whom they might also learn, even if they may be of lower caste (5.15, 19.3). Confucius thus prescribes both humility towards the self (1.8) and towards others, as well as a responsibility to identify others who might stand to teach us something, and to associate with those people.
Propriety, prudence, and shame, among other things, govern and facilitate social relations (1.14). From these virtues emanate the various rituals that regulate how we speak (16.13) [so as to promote effective discourse (1.10, 2.18)] and how we behave towards others [so as to ensure social cohesion (1.7)]. It is in this foundation that the health of the community consists. The cultivation of the individual is therefore directly connected to the cultivation of the community. Through learning, one becomes a virtuous person (17.9). In becoming a virtuous person, one becomes a good parent, a good son or daughter, a good neighbour, and a good citizen (7.13).
